Korean Confucianism - 4. Self-Cultivation: The Way of Learning to be Human
| Understanding Korea Series No.3 | ||
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| 3. Eminent Korean Thinkers and Scholars | 4. Self-Cultivation: The Way of Learning to be Human | 5. The Ethics of Human Relationships: Confucian Influence on Korean Family, Society, and Language |
Confucian learning begins with the self because it “reflects on things near at hand.” The key phrase, “human nature endowed by Heaven,” is frequently quoted by eminent Confucian scholar-educators such as Zhu Xi in China and Yi T’oegye and Yi Yulgok in Korea. As the opening paragraph in the Doctrine of the Mean (one of the Four Books of Confucianism) states,
What Heaven imparts to human beings is human nature. To follow our nature is called the Way (Dao). Cultivating the Way is called education. The Way cannot be separated from us for a moment. What can be separated from us is not the Way. (cf. Chan 1963:98)
Indeed, this subtle passage was articulated cosmologically, morally, and educationally in order to emphasize that the human way of learning is mandated by the Dao. In his study of Confucianism and the Doctrine of the Mean, Professor Tu (Harvard University and Beijing University) pointed out that the intellectual and spiritual heart of Confucianism represents what he called the “human aspiration for self-transformation” through its learning to be human (Tu 1985, 1989).
As we saw in Chapter 1 (Confucianism), Confucian learning is therefore a way of self-cultivation. This is eloquently articulated by the opening key passage of the first chapter in the Great Learning as well:
The ancient who wished to manifest their clear character to the world would first bring order to their states. Those who wished to bring order to their states would first regulate their families. Those who wished to regulate their families would first cultivate their personal lives. Those who wished to cultivate their personal lives would first rectify their minds. Those who wished to rectify their minds would first make their wills sincere. Those who wished to make their wills sincere would first extend their knowledge. The extension of knowledge consists in the investigation of things. (Chan 1963:86; my emphasis)
The eminent Neo-Confucians such as Zhu Xi in China and Yi T’oegye in Korea often discussed this core teaching; we may call it the eight-step Confucian way of perfecting oneself and the world. It begins from “the investigation of things” and continues through “the rectification of the mind,” “self-cultivation,” and then “governing the state.” This is also supported by the Doctrine of the Mean, chapter 1, according to which:
…The Way cannot be separated from us for a moment. What can be separated from us is not the Way. Therefore the superior man [self-cultivated person] is cautious over what he does not see and apprehensive over what he does not hear. (Chan 1963:98)
A related teaching by Confucius is the so-called three-fold reflection. Zhu Xi and Yi T’oegye, for example, emphasized it as a way of self-reflection in the process of personal cultivation. This teaching is what Zengzi (Confucius’ disciple) learned from his master as follows:
Tseng Tzu [Zengzi in Pinyin] said, “Everyday I reflect on myself in three ways: first, whether in working for others I have not been loyal; second, whether in dealing with friends I have not been faithful; and third, whether I have not studied the transmitted teaching.” (Analects, 1:4; cf. Chan 1963:20 or Lau 1979:63).
As cited by Zhu Xi and T’oegye, Confucius also taught the “three-fold treasuring” as follows:
There are three things from which the self-cultivated person treasures most: first, to stay far away from fierceness and snobbishness; second, to be trusted closely when correcting an expression on his face properly; and third, to avoid meanness and contradiction when talking or making sounds. (Analects, 8:4; cf. Lau 1979:92-93)
Regarding daily moral cultivation, Confucius also emphasized the “four-fold prohibition” directly pertaining to the virtue of propriety as follows:
Confucius said, “To master oneself and return to propriety (li) is humanity (ren)….Yen Yüan [Yan Yuan in Pinyin; Confucius’ disciple] said, “May I ask for the detailed items?” Confucius said, “Do not look at what is contrary to propriety, do not listen to what is contrary to propriety, do not speak what is contrary to propriety, and do not make any movement which is contrary to propriety. (Analects, 12:1; Chan 1963:38-39)
The essence of self-cultivation is to extend human-heartedness (in/ren) to others through applying propriety (ye/li) to daily life. In fact, Confucius praised his disciple Yan Yuan for not breaking it “for three months” (Analects, 6:5). Zhu Xi in China and T’oegye in Korea often praised Yan Yuan as a great role-model for Confucian self-cultivation.
Mencius justified and strengthened the Confucian teaching by developing an idealistic moral philosophy of human nature. In addressing “the original goodness of human nature” (Mencius, 2A:6 and 6A:6), he emphasized our “innate ability” to do good. He specifically referred to the “the Four Beginnings [of virtue]” as the foundation of original human goodness as follows:
The mind-and-heart (sim/xin) of commiseration is the beginning of benevolence; the mind-and-heart of shame and dislike is the beginning of righteousness; the mind-and-heart of courtesy and modesty is the beginning of propriety; and the mind-and-heart of [moral discernment of] right and wrong is the beginning of wisdom. All human beings have these Four Beginnings (of virtue) just as they have their four limbs. (Mencius, 2A:6; cf. Lau 1970:82-83)
For Mencius, our moral mind-and-hearts (feelings) of commiseration, shame and dislike, and so on are naturally rooted in human nature, so they are the innate moral seeds of self-cultivation. This therefore confirms the Mencian doctrine that the original goodness of “human nature” is inherent in our mind-and-heart (6A:6; Lau 1970:163),[1] for which reason self-cultivation is said to be the universal path to perfection (sagehood).
According to the Neo-Confucian interpretation, learning starts from the “low level” of cultivating oneself in interaction with daily phenomena while “reflecting on things near at hand.” It begins with this moral and intellectual objective, and one must sincerely maintain patience and dedication because the Confucian way self-cultivation is never a fast track. In other words, one should overcome “the common defect of learning” such as “seeking quick success” or “taking a shortcut.” As Confucius said, make real effort with single-minded dedication for a long period of time.
Neo-Confucians such as Zhu Xi and T’oegye articulated this teaching also by emphasizing the classical teaching as follows: “Be orderly and dignified and be solemn and austere.” Self-cultivation needs to be done consistently and diligently, so that the mind-and-heart does not go wrong and moral principles become clear. The teaching of “single-minded concentration” means controlling the body and the mind in self-cultivation. As Confucius said, “Hold onto it (the mind-heart) and it will remain, let go of it and it will disappear….” (Mencius, 6A:8; Chan 1963:63). So Mencius’ doctrine of “preserving the mind” confirms Confucian belief in “the original goodness of human nature.” For this reason, the Mencian teaching was frequently cited by Korean Neo-Confucians such as T’oegye.
They taught that it is important to integrate study and moral practice to the extent that students can develop the virtue of reverential seriousness as “the master of the self” in personal cultivation. T’oegye, like Zhu Xi, basically meant mind cultivation with reverential attitudes toward Heaven and Earth and other human beings. This teaching is essential to the Confucian way of wisdom; in short, the moral and spiritual core of Confucianism centers around this idea. As I discussed elsewhere (Chung 1995a, 2004), this is arguably a major development within the Korean school, attributed especially to Yi T’oegye, one that enriched the inner Confucian doctrine of sagehood and self-cultivation.[2]
In ordinary language, wisdom requires knowledge and ethical action through a self-reflective learning that respects oneself and others. This also reminds us in the modern world about the broader meaning of Confucian self-cultivation, insofar as its global implication is relevant to our ways of virtuous life as well.
In traditional Korea, not only was moral education closely associated with the system of learning and self-cultivation, Confucian academies also maintained and promoted it at the heart of teaching and learning. In today’s Korea, it still remains an essential component in the public school curriculum system. Consider the contemporary Korean word kyoyuk (education): it combines two single terms kyo (teaching) and yuk (nurturing), both of which originate from the Confucian tradition. This is generally common to Confucian-influenced countries including Korea and Japan. In other words, the Korean notion of education involves not just the North American context of study and intellectual growth, but also moral teaching, learning, and practice. This is also why the Sino-Korean word sŏngin–which literally means a “mature person”–demands an accomplished moral-spiritual stage, not just a physical or academic growth. The public view is that Korean children should be taught to understand that the notion of a “good person” involves moral principles and proper manners (yeŭi; literally, propriety and rightness).
In the modern West, moral education was taken away from the churches and other religious institutes with the creation of secular state schools under the influence of liberal education. In today’s Korea, however, moral education continues to be essential to the Korean school curriculum system. Look at the ethics textbooks that are uniformly used in Korean and other East Asian schools: many of the core Confucian values (e.g., filial piety, respect, righteousness, propriety, etc.) are actually taught there. There is considerable attention to the inseparability of morality, society, and politics and the harmony of the self, family, and community; current scholarship on Confucianism and modern East Asia (e.g., Elman et al. 2002; Tu 1996, Smith 1991, Rozman 1991) has articulated this important point from various perspectives.
The educational implication of self-cultivation has been an important factor in maintaining personal discipline within the whole enterprise of moral education, society, and cultural identity in modern Korea, as I pointed out elsewhere (Chung 1994a, 1995b). To conclude, interpersonal relationships and social manners are usually expressed in close connection to Confucian values often under other labels, which helps to reinforce the public view that the proper understanding of these traditional values is a relevant part of educational curriculum there. In fact, this has contributed to promoting personal cultivation, family solidarity, and social well-being. Chapters 5-7 will explore this and related topics about modern Korea.
Supplementary Readings
Consult the following books, in addition to the short list provided at the end of Chapter 1:
Ching, Julia. 2000. The Religious Thought of Chu Hsi. Toronto and Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chung, Edward, Y.J. 2004. “Confucian Spirituality in Yi T’oegye: A Korean Interpretation and Its Implications for Comparative Religion.” In Tu Weiming and Mary Evelyn Tucker, eds., Confucian Spirituality, vol. 2B, pp. 204-225.
Chung, Edward, Y.J. 1995b. “Confucian Ethics in Contemporary Korea: A Common National Discourse.” Korean Culture 16: 12-20.
Chung, Edward, Y.J. 1994a. “Confucianism and Women in Modern Korea: Continuity, Change and Conflict.” A. Sharma and K. Young, eds. The Annual Review of Women in World Religions, 3: 142-188.
De Bary, William. T. 1981. Neo-Confucian Orthodoxy and the Learning of the Mind-and-Heart. New York: Columbia University Press.
Gardner, Daniel K. 1986. Chu Hsi and the Ta-hsüeh: Neo-Confucian Reflection on the Confucian Canon. Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard University.
Ivanhoe, Philip J. 2000. Confucian Moral Self Cultivation, 2nd ed. Indianapolis: Hackett Publication.
Robinson, Michael E. 1991. “Perceptions of Confucianism in Twentieth-Century Korea.” In G. Rozman, ed., The East Asian Region: Confucian Heritage and Its Modern Adaptation.
Rozman, Gilbert, ed. 1991. The East Asian Region: Confucian Heritage and Its Modern Adaptation. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Taylor, Rodney. 1991. Religious Dimensions of Neo-Confucianism. Albany: SUNY Press.
Tu, Weiming. 1989. Centrality and Commonality: An Essay on Confucian Religiousness [A revised and enlarged edition of Centrality and Commonality: An Essay on Chung-yung]. Albany: SUNY Press.
Tu, Weiming, ed. 1996. Confucian Traditions in East Asian Modernity: Moral Education and Economic Culture in Japan and the Four Mini-Dragons. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Footnote
- ↑ See Chung 1995a (chapter 1) for my detailed discussion of this topic in relation to the Korean Neo-Confucian philosophy of human nature and feelings (“Four-Seven Debate”).
- ↑ See also Kalton 1988; I discussed this topic on T’oegye’s ethics and spirituality of self-cultivation in Chung 2010a, 2011b.
